% StefaniResearch — complete bibliography. % Generated at build time from src/content/publications.yaml. % 16 entries, newest first. @misc{talk-eth-zurich-2025, title = {A Deeper Dive into Multitasking Dynamics}, author = {Stefani, M.}, year = 2025, month = nov, howpublished = {ETH Zürich} } @article{hilla-military-experience-2025, title = {Military Experience Predicts Military Multitasking Better than Laboratory Measures in Officer Cadets}, author = {Hilla, Y. and Stefani, M. and Friedrich, E. V. C. and Mack, W.}, year = 2025, month = jun, journal = {Cognitive Research: Principles and Implications}, doi = {10.1186/s41235-025-00639-0}, abstract = {Whether or not it is possible to predict military performance using laboratory measures constitutes an important question. There are indications that humans possess a common multitasking ability enabling them to perform complex behaviors irrespective of task requirements. Working memory processing abilities likely illustrate cognitive substrates thereof. Thus, it should be possible to predict military performance by means of laboratory multitasking via working memory processing abilities. To investigate this, we recruited 40 officer cadets and assessed their laboratory multitasking proficiency using the Multi-Attribute Task Battery and their performance in a simulated military operation. We then tested if the laboratory measure predicted their military performance and if this relationship was mediated by working memory processing abilities using Bayesian procedures. We also controlled if demographics, military characteristics, media preferences, or social/personality traits affected any of these measures. In contrast to our expectations, the associations between laboratory and military multitasking and working memory were weak. Furthermore, the participants did not display multitasking decrements but improvements as a function of time on task in the military setting. Moreover, we found a positive association between the time officer cadets had already served in the military and military performance. We discuss the role of learned task representations in this regard and conclude that it might be more reasonable to investigate cognitive functions as co-variates of associations between military characteristics (e.g., military service duration) and military performance in future research than to focus on laboratory measures as predictors of military performance.} } @misc{talk-ulm-depth-2025, title = {How Does Statistical Learning Shape Attentional Tuning to Depth in 3D Visual Search?}, author = {Stefani, M.}, year = 2025, month = may, howpublished = {Universität Ulm} } @article{stefani-differential-effects-task-2025, title = {Differential Effects of Task Difficulty on Target-Type Switching in Haptic Foraging: Evidence for Increased Switching with Extreme Task Demands}, author = {Stefani, M. and Mack, W. and Sauter, M.}, year = 2025, month = apr, journal = {Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics}, doi = {10.3758/s13414-025-03064-z}, abstract = {This study investigated how varying difficulty levels modulate haptic foraging performance and search behavior. Thirty-three blindfolded participants had to locate and remove 20 target objects within three conditions — easy feature, conjunction, and hard feature — defined by target-distractor similarity. Response times and target-type switching were measured, and errors were recorded but remained very low across all conditions. Results revealed that higher task difficulty was associated with longer response times. Although participants switched between target types frequently in both the easy and the hard feature conditions, they switched significantly less often in the conjunction condition. This suggests that tasks requiring multiple feature dimensions to distinguish targets from distractors elicit more top-down-driven sequential searching, whereas distinctly defined targets permit more frequent shifts driven by salient cues. Practice effects emerged as participants performed each condition faster when they had already practiced different search conditions. These findings show that haptic search behavior, like visual foraging, is shaped by the interplay of top-down and bottom-up processes. They further highlight that tactile and visual systems may share common representational pathways and that practical considerations, such as target similarity and prior experience, play a crucial role in task efficiency.} } @article{stefani-multitasking-costs-tripletask-2025, title = {Multi-Tasking Costs in Triple-Task Performance despite Dual-Task Preparation}, author = {Stefani, M. and Sauter, M. and Mack, W.}, year = 2025, month = jan, journal = {Memory & Cognition}, doi = {10.3758/s13421-024-01674-w}, abstract = {This study explores multi-tasking by examining the effects of transitioning from dual-task to triple-task scenarios. Our research extends beyond conventional dual-task paradigms to investigate the impact of triple-task performance on two participant groups: those unprepared in single, dual, or triple tasks (N = 14) and those previously prepared in single and dual tasks (N = 13). The study consisted of a preparation phase with nine sessions and an assessment phase with eight sessions. In the assessment phase, both groups performed single, dual, and triple tasks of varying complexity (simple, medium, and complex). Despite the initial advantage observed in the prepared group, this advantage diminished throughout the sessions. Notably, both groups adopted distinct strategies for processing within the triple task, revealing the influence of task coordination on response times as the task set combinations expanded. The study demonstrates that preparation in the form of pre-training can facilitate applying skills acquired from specific tasks to others, with the formation of specific task pair sets playing a pivotal role in processing and coordination. Despite extensive preparation, the persistence of multi-tasking costs challenges traditional assumptions about eliminating such costs through practice. In conclusion, our research contributes to the current understanding of multi-tasking by highlighting the need for further exploration into inter(sub)task coordination and prioritization in multiple-task scenarios. The study underscores the complexities inherent in managing triple tasks and individuals' potential strategies. The findings suggest that ongoing refinement of cognitive models from dual tasks is necessary to accommodate multi-tasking behaviors in more complex environments.} } @article{saalwirth-eyetracking-2024, title = {Eye-Tracking Analysis of Attentional Disengagement in Phobic and Non-Phobic Individuals}, author = {Saalwirth, C. and Stefani, M. and Sauter, M. and Mack, W.}, year = 2024, month = nov, journal = {Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics}, doi = {10.3758/s13414-024-02968-6}, abstract = {This study investigated threat-related attention biases using a new visual search paradigm with eye tracking, which allows for measuring attentional disengagement in isolation. This is crucial as previous studies have been unable to distinguish between engagement, disengagement, and behavioral freezing. Thirty-three participants (Mage = 28.75 years, SD = 8.98; 21 women) with self-reported specific phobia (spiders, snakes, and pointed objects) and their matched controls (Mage = 28.38 years, SD = 8.66; 21 women) took part in the experiment. The participants were instructed to initially focus on a picture in the center of the screen, then search for a target picture in an outer circle consisting of six images, and respond via a button press whether the object in the target picture was oriented to the left or right. We found that phobic individuals show delayed disengagement and slower decision times compared with non-phobic individuals, regardless of whether the stimulus was threat-related or neutral. These results indicate that phobic individuals tend to exhibit poorer attentional control mechanisms and problems inhibiting irrelevant information. We also confirmed a threat-unrelated shared feature effect with complex stimuli (delayed disengagement when an attended stimulus and an unattended target share common stimulus features). This process might play a role in various experimental setups investigating attentional disengagement that has not yet been considered. These findings are important, as good attentional control may serve as a protective mechanism against anxiety disorders.} } @misc{talk-teap-regensburg-2024, title = {Multitasking Costs in Triple-Task Performance Despite Dual-Task Training}, author = {Stefani, M.}, year = 2024, month = mar, howpublished = {TeaP, Regensburg} } @article{hilla-flight-simulation-2024, title = {Flight Simulation Task Performance Predicts Military Multitasking Better than Laboratory Measures}, author = {Hilla, Y. and Stefani, M. and Nitzschner, M. and Mack, W.}, year = 2024, month = jan, journal = {Human Error, Reliability, Resilience, and Performance — AHFE International Conference} } @misc{hilla-multiattribute-task-battery-2024, title = {Multi-Attribute Task Battery Performance Predicts Military Multitasking Better than Multitasking Costs}, author = {Hilla, Y. and Stefani, M. and Nitzschner, M. and Mack, W.}, year = 2024, month = jan, howpublished = {OSF Preprints}, doi = {10.31234/osf.io/5hqp2}, abstract = {Military operations require multitasking. Dual-task paradigms and individuals' performance in cohesive multitasking scenarios allow to operationalize multitasking. However, it is unclear which approach is more suitable for predicting military performance. Thus, we recruited 25 students/officer cadets of the University of the Bundeswehr in Munich (Germany) to perform a dual-task and a multitasking scenario in the laboratory and military multitasking in a shooting gallery to investigate which laboratory measure predicted military performance best. In the laboratory, individuals were to solve math problems and memorize radio signals in single- and dual-task conditions. Moreover, they were to perform the Multi-Attribute Task Battery. In the shooting gallery, they conducted a shooting exercise, while performing similar math and radio tasks as previously in the laboratory. We expected individuals' dual-task performance to predict military multitasking best, given that both conditions shared task requirements. Using Bayesian regression analyses and model fit comparisons, we found however moderate evidence in favor of individuals' Multi-Attribute Task Battery performance predicting military multitasking best. Bayesian Markov-Chain-Monte-Carlo simulations compensated for the relatively small sample size. Nevertheless, a replication of the effect is required to test its robustness. Moreover, further research will be required to determine if it translates to other military task areas.} } @article{stefani-relative-contributions-oculomotor-2023, title = {Relative Contributions of Oculomotor Capture and Disengagement to Distractor-Related Dwell Times in Visual Search}, author = {Stefani, M. and Sauter, M.}, year = 2023, month = oct, journal = {Scientific Reports}, doi = {10.1038/s41598-023-43604-x}, abstract = {In visual search, attention is reliably captured by salient distractors and must be actively disengaged from them to reach the target. In such attentional capture paradigms, dwell time is measured on distractors that appear in the periphery (e.g., on a random location on a circle). Distractor-related dwell time is typically thought to be largely due to stimulus-driven processes related to oculomotor capture dynamics. However, the extent to which oculomotor capture and oculomotor disengagement contribute to distractor dwell time has not been known because standard attentional capture paradigms cannot decouple these processes. In the present study, we used a novel paradigm combining classical attentional capture trials and delayed disengagement trials. We measured eye movements to dissociate the capture and disengagement mechanisms underlying distractor dwell time. We found that only two-thirds of distractor dwell time (~52 ms) can be explained by oculomotor capture, while one-third is explained by oculomotor disengagement (~18 ms), which has been neglected or underestimated in previous studies. Thus, oculomotor disengagement (goal-directed) processes play a more significant role in distractor dwell times than previously thought.} } @misc{talk-teap-trier-2023, title = {Attention Bias for Anxiety-Linked Stimuli}, author = {Stefani, M.}, year = 2023, month = mar, howpublished = {TeaP, Trier} } @article{sauter-equal-quality-online-2022, title = {Equal Quality for Online and Lab Data: A Direct Comparison from Two Dual-Task Paradigms}, author = {Sauter, M. and Stefani, M. and Mack, W.}, year = 2022, month = jan, journal = {Open Psychology}, doi = {10.1515/psych-2022-0003}, abstract = {Conducting behavioral experiments online has become more prevalent recently. Still, there is reluctance to embrace the possibilities this technology has to offer. So far, only simple tasks have been replicated in an online setting. In order to investigate whether collecting online also leads to high quality data in demanding tasks, we directly compared data collected in the lab with data collected online from a demanding dual-task paradigm and a psychological refractory period paradigm. In Experiment 1, we recruited from local pools, online and offline; in Experiment 2, we collected lab data from our local pool and online data from a remote commercial participant platform. We found that all relevant effects were replicated in the lab and online settings; effect sizes were similar. Additionally, most response time distributions were even statistically equivalent when comparing online and lab data. Thus, online effect sizes and variances can be comparable to lab-based data. Online studies are time-efficient and recruiting an online sample instead or on top of a laboratory sample should be considered for basic behavioral research. This can serve an important role in the generalizability and replicability of findings in the cognitive and behavioral sciences.} } @article{stefani-expanding-dualtask-2022, title = {Expanding Dual-Task Research by a Triple-Task}, author = {Stefani, M. and Sauter, M. and Eichert, F. and Mack, W.}, year = 2022, month = jan, journal = {Open Psychology}, doi = {10.1515/psych-2022-0008}, abstract = {Multitasking research in the laboratory is dominated by extremely simplistic dual-task paradigms. Although dual-tasks allow for some variations, they do not compare well to more complex everyday task settings. This study expands a classical dual-task paradigm by adding a third task. The dual-tasks and the triple-task always consisted of the same three single tasks. The aim was to investigate the effects of the combinations of the three single-tasks and in which manner response times and costs increased. Stimulus-response pairings were varied either once within participants (E1) or between participants (E2). Our results showed that the increase in response time from dual-tasks to triple-tasks was only 43% of the increase from single-tasks to dual-tasks suggesting a non-linear cost of adding tasks. Moreover, response times in each subtask were higher in triple-task situations compared to single-task or dual-task situations. This is in contrast to classical dual-tasks, in which typically only one of the two responses is delayed. Cognitively, for costs in triple-tasks, unlike in dual-tasks, task coordination seems to play a larger role compared to the classically suggested relationships between stimulus and response in terms of their modality- and ideomotor-compatibility which we will discuss. Overall, the study demonstrates that current multitasking research is limited in its generalizability by focusing only on dual-tasks and would benefit from research with more complex task settings.} } @misc{talk-teap-ulm-2021, title = {Increasing Complexity: From Single-Tasks to Triple-Tasks}, author = {Stefani, M.}, year = 2021, month = mar, howpublished = {TeaP, Ulm} } @article{sauter-interactive-search-2020, title = {Towards Interactive Search: Investigating Visual Search in a Novel Real-World Paradigm}, author = {Sauter, M. and Stefani, M. and Mack, W.}, year = 2020, month = dec, journal = {Brain Sciences}, doi = {10.3390/brainsci10120927}, abstract = {An overwhelming majority of studies on visual search and selective attention were conducted using computer screens. There are arguably shortcomings in transferring knowledge from computer-based studies to real-world search behavior as findings are based on viewing static pictures on computer screens. This does not go well with the dynamic and interactive nature of vision in the real world. It is crucial to take visual search research to the real world in order to study everyday visual search processes. The aim of the present study was to develop an interactive search paradigm that can serve as a "bridge" between classical computerized search and everyday interactive search. We based our search paradigm on simple LEGO® bricks arranged on tabletop trays to ensure comparability with classical computerized visual search studies while providing room for easily increasing the complexity of the search environment. We found that targets were grasped slower when there were more distractors (Experiment 1) and there were sizable differences between various search conditions (Experiment 2), largely in line with classical visual search research and revealing similarities to research in natural scenes. Therefore, our paradigm can be seen as a valuable asset complementing visual search research in an environment between computerized search and everyday search.} } @article{stefani-delayed-disengagement-2020, title = {Delayed Disengagement from Irrelevant Fixation Items: Is It Generally Functional?}, author = {Stefani, M. and Sauter, M. and Mack, W.}, year = 2020, month = feb, journal = {Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics}, doi = {10.3758/s13414-019-01926-x}, abstract = {In a circular visual search paradigm, the disengagement of attention is automatically delayed when a fixated but irrelevant center item shares features of the target item. Additionally, if mismatching letters are presented on these items, response times (RTs) are slowed further, while matching letters evoke faster responses (Wright, Boot, & Brockmole, 2015a). This is interpreted as a functional reason of the delayed disengagement effect in terms of deeper processing of the fixation item. The purpose of the present study was the generalization of these findings to unfamiliar symbols and to linear instead of circular layouts. Experiments 1 and 2 replicated the functional delayed disengagement effect with letters and symbols. In Experiment 3, the search layout was changed from circular to linear and only saccades from left to right had to be performed. We did not find supportive data for the proposed functional nature of the effect. In Experiments 4 and 5, we tested whether the unidirectional saccade decision, a potential blurring by adjacent items, or a lack of statistical power was the cause of the diminished effects in Experiment 3. With increased sample sizes, the delayed disengagement effect as well as its functional underpinning were now observed consistently. Taken together, our results support prior assumptions that delayed disengagement effects are functionally rooted in a deeper processing of the fixation items. They also generalize to unfamiliar symbols and linear display layouts.} }